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STRUCTURE OF THALLIUM ISOTOPES
By Prof. Lefteris Kaliambos (Natural Philosopher in New Energy) ( September 2014) Historically the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron (1932) along with the invalid relativity (EXPERIMENTS REJECT RELATIVITY) led to the abandonment of the well-established electromagnetic laws, in favour of various contradicting nuclear theories, which could not lead to the nuclear structure. Under this physics crisis and using the charged UP and DOWN quarks , discovered by Gell-Mann and Zweig, I published my paper “Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism ”(2003), which led to my discovery of the new structure of protons and neutrons given by proton = + 5d + 4u = 288 quarks = mass of 1836.15 electrons neutron = + 4u + 8d = 288 quarks = mass of 1838.68 electrons The paper was also presented at a nuclear conference held at NCSR "Demokritos" (2002). In this photo I present the electromagnetic laws governing the nuclear structure, but a student of Einstein (Dr Th. Kalogeropoulos ) criticised my discovery of nuclear force and structure by believing that the nuclear structure is due to the invalid relativity. In fact, here one can see the 9 charged quarks in proton and the 12 ones in neutron able to give the charge distributions in nucleons for revealing the strong electromagnetic force for the nuclear binding in the correct nuclear structure by applying the laws of electromagnetism. You can see my papers of nuclear structure in my FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICS CONCEPTS . Note that according to my discovery of the LAW OF ENERGY AND MASS the mass defect in the nuclear structure is due to the photon mass of the emitting dipolic photon presented at the international conference "Frontiers of fundamental physics" (1993) organised by the natural philosophers M. Barone and F. Selleri , who gave me an award including a disc of the atomic philosopher Democritus. Nevertheless today many physicist continue to apply not the well-established laws but the various fallacious nuclear structure models which lead to complications. Thallium (TI) has 37 isotopes which have atomic masses that range from 176 to 212. Tl-203 and TI-205 are the only stable isotopes and Ti-204 is the most stable radioisotope with a half-life of 3.78 years. TI-207, with a half-life of 4.77 minutes, has the longest half-life of naturally occurring radioisotopes. Thallium-202 (half-life 12.23 days) can be made in a cyclotron while thallium-204 (half-life 3.78 years) is made by the neutron activation of stable thallium in a nuclear reactor. In fully ionized state, the isotope Tl-205 becomes beta-radioactive, decaying to Pb-205. It means that in fully ionized state thallium has only one stable isotope - Tl-203. Since thallium is heavier than the osmium we conclude that it consists of 8 horizontal planes. Similarly all heavier nuclei than osmium have 8 horizontal planes able to give more blank positions than those of Osmium. For example the Pb-208 with 8 horizontal planes provides 44 blank positions able to receive 44 extra neutrons with two bonds per neutron. You can see in Fig-7d the 8 horizontal planes of Pb-208 in my published paper “Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism”. ' '''The core of thallium, the TI-162, with 81 protons and 81 neutrons (odd number) breaks the high symmetry giving only two stable isotopes. In general since the additional p81n81 is a vertical system with S =0, the structure of TI-162 has S =0 with 8 horizontal planes of opposite spins . Moreover two horizontal squares like the -HSQ and +HSQ exist under and over the structure of the 8 horizontal planes. They give also S = 0 because the two deuterons of the down horizontal square (-HSQ) have S = -2 and the two deuterons of the up horizontal square ( +HSQ ) have S = +2. Of course several protons of such a core form blank positions able to receive 43 extra neutrons with two bonds per neutron for overcoming the pp and nn repulsions in the stable structure of the Ti-205. Moreover for constructing a stable structure of symmetrical arrangements in several nuclides as in the following group including the stable structures of TI-203 and TI-205, the TI-162 (core) changes the spin from S =0 to S = +1 . In this case one deuteron of -HSQ changes the spin from S = -1 to S=0 giving S =+1 in order to form symmetrical arrangements with the additional p81n81. In other words under symmetrical arrangements the TI-162 as a core has S = +1. Under this condition the stable TI-205 with S = +1/2 of 43 extra neutrons has 21 extra neutrons of positive spins and 22 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is ' 'S = +1 + 21(+1/2) + 22(-1/2) = +1/2 ' 'On the other hand in the heavier unstable nuclides the more extra neutrons than those of the stable TI-205 (in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to the beta minus decay. ' ' ' 'STRUCTURE OF TI-177, TI-179, TI-181, TI-183, TI-185, TI-187, TI-189, TI-191, TI-193, TI-195, TI-197, TI-199, TI-201, TI-203, TI-205, TI-207 AND TI-209 ' The structures of the above unstable nuclides including the stable structures of TI-203 and TI-205 with S = +1/2 are based also on the same structure of TI-162 (core) having S = +1 . For example the unstable TI-201 with S =+1/2 of 39 extra neutrons has 19 extra neutrons of positive spins and 20 extra neutrons of negative spins . That is S = +1 + 19(+1/2) + 20(-1/2) = +1/2 These extra neutrons fill the blank positions and make two bonds per neutron but their small number with respect to the large number of pp repulsions of long range cannot give sufficient binding energies to pn bonds for overcoming the pp and nn repulsions. However in the stable structures of the TI-203 and TI-205 with S = +1/2 the greater number of extra neutrons gives enough binding energies to pn bonds for overcoming the repulsions. Whereas in the unstable structures of TI-207 and TI-209 the two or four more extra neutrons than those of the stable TI-205 (in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to the beta minus decay. . ' ' 'STRUCTURE OF TI-176, TI-184, TI-186, TI-188, TI-190, TI-192, TI-194, TI-196, TI-198, TI-200, TI-202, TI-204 AND TI-206 ' After a careful analysis I found that the structure of this group is based on another structure of TI-162 (core) having S = -2. In this case one deuteron of +HSQ changes the spin from S = +1 to S =-1 giving S = -2. Particularly it goes to -HSQ for making horizontal bonds with a deuteron of the down square. Under this condition the unstable TI-176 with S = -3 of 14 extra neutrons has 6 extra neutrons of positive spins and 8 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is S = -2 + 6(+1/2) + 8(-1/2) = -3 Whereas the unstable TI-206 with S = 0 of 44 extra neutrons has 24 extra neutrons of positive spins and 20 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is S = -2 + 24(+1/2) + 20(-1/2) = 0 This nuclide has one extra neutron more than the stable TI-205. So in the absence of blank positions it makes a single bond leading to the beta minus decay. '''STRUCTURE OF TI-208, TI-210, AND TI-212 WITH S = +5 After a careful analysis I found that the structures of the above nuclides having even number of extra neutrons are based on another structure of TI- 162 (core) having S = +5. In this case the two deuterons of -HSQ change their spins from S = -2 to S =+2 giving S = +4. Particularly they go to +HSQ for making horizontal bonds with the two deuterons of the up square. Also the additional p81n81 changes the spin from S=0 (vertical system with S=0), because as a deuteron with S = +1 it makes horizontal bonds with a deuteron of the up square. In other words the core of such arrangements has S = +5. Under this condition the unstable TI-208 with S = +5 has 46 extra neutrons of opposite spins. Note that here three extra neutrons more than those of the stable TI-205 make single bonds leading to the beta minus decay. In the same way the more extra neutrons of the unstable TI-210 and TI-212 than those of the stable TI-205 make single bonds leading to the beta minus decay. Category:Fundamental physics concepts